Valuation Methods

An accurate appraisal depends on the methodical collection of data. Specific data, covering details regarding the particular property, and general data, pertaining to the nation, region, city and neighborhood wherein the property is located, are collected and analyzed to arrive at a value. Three basic approaches are used during this process to determine a property's value.

Method 1 - Sales Comparison Approach

The sales comparison approach is commonly used in valuing single-family homes and land. Sometimes called the market data approach, it is an estimate of value derived by comparing a property with recently sold properties with similar characteristics. These similar properties are referred to as comparables, and in order to provide a valid comparison, each must:

Be as similar to the subject property as possible;
Have been sold within the last year in an open and competitive market and
Have been sold under typical market conditions.

Comparables

Comparables should be as similar as possible to the subject property, and at least three or four should be used in the appraisal process. The most important factors to consider when selecting comparables are the size and the location of the subject and the comparable properties. The location is extremely important because it can have a tremendous effect on a property's market value.

Adjustments

Since no two properties are exactly alike, adjustments to the comparables' sales prices will be made to account for dissimilar features and other factors that would affect value, including:

Age and condition of buildings;

Date of sale, if economic changes occur between the date of sale of a comparable and the date of the appraisal;
Location, since similar properties might differ in price from neighborhood to neighborhood;
Physical features, including lot size, landscaping, type and quality of construction, number and type of rooms, square feet of living space and whether or not a property has hardwood floors, a garage, kitchen upgrades, a fireplace, a pool, central air, etc. and
Terms and conditions of sale, such as if a property's seller was under duress or if a property was sold between relatives (at a discounted price).

The market value estimate of the subject property will fall within the range formed by the adjusted sales prices of the comparables. Since some of the adjustments made to the sales prices of the comparables will be more subjective than others, weighted consideration is typically given to those comparables that had the least amount of adjustment.

Method 2 - Cost Approach

The cost approach can be used to estimate the value of properties that have been improved by one or more buildings. This method involves separate estimates of value for the building(s) and the land, taking into consideration depreciation. The estimates are added together to calculate the value of the entire improved property. The cost approach makes the assumption that a reasonable buyer would not pay more for an existing improved property than it would cost to buy a comparable lot and construct a building that is comparable in terms of desirability and usefulness. This approach is useful when the property being appraised is a type of property that is not frequently sold and is not an income-producing property. Examples include schools, churches, hospitals and government buildings.

Building Costs

Building costs can be estimated in several ways, including the square-foot method where the cost per square foot of a recently built comparable is multiplied by the number of square feet in the subject building; the unit-in-place method where costs are estimated based on the construction cost per unit of measure of the individual building components, including labor and materials and the quantity-survey method which estimates the quantities of raw materials that will be needed to replace the subject building, along with the current price of the materials and associated installation costs.

Depreciation

For appraisal purposes, depreciation refers to any condition that negatively affects the value of an improvement to real property, and takes into consideration:

Physical deterioration, including curable deterioration, such as painting and roof replacement and incurable deterioration, such as structural problems;
Functional obsolescence, which refers to physical or design features that are no longer considered desirable by property owners, such as low ceilings, outdated fixtures or homes with four bedrooms but only one bath and
Economic obsolescence, caused by factors that are external to the property, such as being located close to a noisy airport or polluting factory.

The cost approach for real estate valuation involves five basic steps:

Estimate the value of the land as if it were vacant and available to be put to its highest and best use, using the sales comparison approach since land cannot be depreciated.
Estimate the current cost of constructing the building(s) and site improvements.
Estimate the amount of depreciation of the improvements resulting from deterioration, functional obsolescence or economic obsolescence.
Deduct the depreciation from the estimated construction costs.
Add the estimated value of the land to the depreciated cost of the building(s) and site improvements to determine the total property value.

Method 3 - Income Capitalization Approach

The income approach is the third method of real estate valuation, and is based on the relationship between the rate of return an investor requires and the net income that a property produces. It is used to estimate the value of income-producing properties such as apartment complexes, office buildings and shopping centers. Appraisals using the income capitalization approach can be fairly straightforward when the subject property can be expected to have a future income, and when its expenses are predictable and steady.

Direct Capitalization

Appraisers will perform the following steps when using the direct capitalization approach:

Estimate the annual potential gross income;
Take into consideration vacancy and rent collection losses to determine the effective gross income;
Deduct annual operating expenses to calculate the annual net operating income;
Estimate the price that a typical investor would pay for the income produced by the particular type and class of property. This is accomplished by estimating the rate of return, or capitalization rate and
Apply the capitalization rate to the property's annual net operating income to form an estimate of the property's value.

Gross Income Multipliers

The gross income multiplier (GIM) method can be used to appraise other properties that are typically not purchased as income properties but that could be rented, such as one- and two-family homes. The GRM method relates the sales price of a property to its expected rental income. For residential properties, the gross monthly income is typically used; for commercial and industrial properties, the gross annual income would be used. The gross income multiplier method can be calculated as follows:

Sales Price / Rental Income = Gross Income Multiplier

Recent sales and rental data from at least three similar properties can be used to establish an accurate GIM. The GIM can then be applied to the estimated fair market rental of the subject property to determine its market value, which can be calculated as follows:

Rental Income X GIM = Estimated Market Value

The Bottom Line

Accurate real estate valuation is important to mortgage lenders, investors, insurers and buyers and sellers of real property. While appraisals are generally performed by skilled professionals, anyone involved in a real transaction can benefit from gaining a basic understanding of the different methods of real estate valuation.

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